Scaling smallholder tree cover restoration across the tropics

Restoring tree cover in tropical countries has the potential to benefit millions of smallholders through improvements income and environmental services. However, despite their dominant landholding shares many countries, smallholders’ role restoration not been addressed prior global or pan-tropical studies. We fill this lacuna by using spatial data on trees people, national indicators enabling conditions, micro-level expert information. find that 2050, low-cost is feasible within 280, 200, 60 million hectares croplands, pasturelands, degraded forestlands, respectively. Such could affect 210 people 59 pasturelands 22 forestlands. This predominance opportunity populated agricultural lands revealed analyses potential. In with potential, smallholdings comprise a significant proportion Asia (∼76 %) Africa (∼60 but Americas (∼3%). Thus, while account for approximately half 21st century deforestation, smallholder-based reforestation may play larger efforts reverse recent forest loss than Americas. Furthermore, our show largely lack policy commitments smallholder supportive institutional market conditions. Discussions among practitioners researchers suggest four principles – partnering farmers prioritizing preferences, reducing uncertainty, strengthening markets, mobilizing innovative financing can help scale smallholder-driven face these challenges.